Introduction to Networking
What is network?
A network is the collection of devices like computer,networking devices and other devices which are capable to interconnect each other for the purpose of data and resource sharing, to gain control over each other , linked through medium such as cables,wireless technologies etc.
Types of network
LAN(Local Area Network):
It is a network that covers a small geographical area such as homes,offices and groups of buildings.
Example: connecting using Ethernet/internet cables.
A local area network (LAN) is a collection of devices connected together in one physical location, such as a building, office, or home. A LAN can be small or large, ranging from a home network with one user to an enterprise network with thousands of users and devices in an office or school.
A LAN comprises cables, access points, switches, routers, and other components that enable devices to connect to internal servers, web servers, and other LANs via wide area networks.
The rise of virtualization has also fueled the development of virtual LANs, which enable network administrators to logically group network nodes and partition their networks without a need for major infrastructure changes.
For example, in an office with multiple departments, such as accounting, IT support, and administration, each department’s computers could be logically connected to the same switch but segmented to behave as if they are separate.
Benefits of LAN:
The advantages of a LAN are the same as those for any group of devices networked together. The devices can use a single Internet connection, share files with one another, print to shared printers, and be accessed and even controlled by one another.
Types of LAN:
In general, there are two types of LANs: client/server LANs and peer-to-peer LANs.
A client/server LAN consists of several devices (the clients) connected to a central server. The server manages file storage, application access, device access, and network traffic. A client can be any connected device that runs or accesses applications or the Internet. The clients connect to the server either with cables or through wireless connections.
Typically, suites of applications can be kept on the LAN server. Users can access databases, email, document sharing, printing, and other services through applications running on the LAN server, with read and write access maintained by a network or IT administrator. Most midsize to large business, government, research, and education networks are client/server-based LANs.
A peer-to-peer LAN doesn’t have a central server and cannot handle heavy workloads like a client/server LAN can, and so they’re typically smaller. On a peer-to-peer LAN, each device shares equally in the functioning of the network. The devices share resources and data through wired or wireless connections to a switch or router. Most home networks are peer-to-peer.
WLAN(Wireless Local Area Network)
It is a group of co-located computers or other devices that form a network based on radio transmission rather than wired connection.
Ex: wifi,hotspot,bluetooth etc..
A wireless local-area network (WLAN) is a group of colocated computers or other devices that form a network based on radio transmissions rather than wired connections. A Wi-Fi network is a type of WLAN; anyone connected to Wi-Fi while reading this webpage is using a WLAN.
Benefits of a WLAN:
1. Extended reach: WLANs enable computing to happen anywhere, even when carrying high data loads and advanced web applications.
2. Device flexibility: A WLAN supports use of a wide range of devices, such as computers, phones, tablets, gaming systems, and IoT devices.
3. Easier installation and management: A WLAN requires less physical equipment than a wired network, which saves money, reduces installation time, and takes up less of a footprint in office settings.
4. Scalability: A WLAN is easy to scale. Adding users is as simple as assigning login credentials.
5. Network management: Nearly all management of a WLAN can be handled virtually. A single software interface can provide visibility, manage users, monitor network health, and collect data.
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
It is an interconnection of several LANs throughout a city or municipality. Like LAN, a MAN can use various wired or wireless connectivity options,including fiber optics,Ethernet cables,wi-fi or cellular.
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size greater than LAN but smaller than a WAN. It normally comprises networked interconnections within a city that also offers a connection to the Internet.
The distinguishing features of MAN are:
1. Network size generally ranges from 5 to 50 km. It may be as small as a group of buildings in a campus to as large as covering the whole city.
2. Data rates are moderate to high.
3. In general, a MAN is either owned by a user group or by a network provider who sells service to users, rather than a single organization as in LAN.
4. It facilitates sharing of regional resources.
5. They provide uplinks for connecting LANs to WANs and Internet.
Example of MAN:
1) Cable TV network
2) Telephone networks providing high-speed DSL lines
3) IEEE 802.16 or WiMAX, that provides high-speed broadband access with Internet connectivity to customer premises.
WAN(Wide Area Network)
A WAN is the most expensive type of computer network configuration.Like a MAN, a WAN is a connection of multiple LANs belonging to the same network.Unlike MANs,however ,WANs aren’t restricted to the confine’s of city limits.A WAN can extend to any area of globe.
Ex: Internet
WAN connects computers together across longer physical distances.
A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographical area comprising a region, a country, a continent or even the whole world. WAN includes the technologies to transmit data, image, audio and video information over long distances and among different LANs and MANs.
The distinguishing features of WAN are:
1. WANs have a large capacity, connecting a large number of computers over a large area, and are inherently scalable.
2. They facilitate the sharing of regional resources.
3. They provide uplinks for connecting LANs and MANs to the Internet.
4. Communication links are provided by public carriers like telephone networks, network providers, cable systems, satellites etc.
5. Typically, they have low data transfer rate and high propagation delay, i.e.they have low communication speed.
6. They generally have a higher bit error rate.
Example of WAN:
1) The Internet
2) 4G Mobile Broadband Systems
3) A network of bank cash dispensers.
What is Internet?
A global computer network providing a variety of information and communication facilities,consisting of interconnected network using standardized communication protocols/guidelines/regulations/rules. It is a connection of interconnected network.
Internet is used to connect the different networks of computers simultaneously. It is a public network therefore anyone can access the internet. On the internet, there are multiple users and it provides an unlimited of information to the users.
What is Intranet?
Intranet is the type of internet that is used privately. It is a private network therefore anyone can’t access the intranet. On the intranet, there is a limited number of users and it provides a piece of limited information to its users.
What are Network Devices?
Network allow people to communicate,collaborate and interact in many ways.Network’s are used to access web pages,talk using IP telephones,participate in video conferences,compete in interactive gaming,shop using the internet,complete online coursework and more.
Different networking devices have different roles to play in a computer network.
NIC(Network Interface Card)
A Network Interface Card is a computer hardware component that connects a computer to a computer network.It implements the physical layer circuitry necessary for communicating with a data link layer standard,such as Ethernet or wi-fi . Each card represents a device and can prepare ,transmit and control the flow of data on the network.
Network Interface Card (NIC) is a hardware component that is present on the computer. It is used to connect different networking devices such as computers and servers to share data over the connected network. It provides functionality such as support for I/O interrupt, Direct Memory Access (DMA) interfaces, partitioning, and data transmission.
NIC is important for us to establish a wired or wireless connection over the network.
Network Interface Card is also known as Network Interface Controller, Network Adapter, Ethernet card, Connection card, and LAN (Local Area Network) Adapter.
Functions of the Network Interface Card:
A list of functions of the Network Interface Card is given below -
1. NIC is used to convert data into a digital signal.
2. In the OSI model, NIC uses the physical layer to transmit signals and the network layer to transmit data packets.
3. NIC offers both wired (using cables) and wireless (using Wi-Fi) data communication techniques.
4. NIC is a middleware between a computer/server and a data network.
5. NIC operates on both physical as well as the data link layer of the OSI model.
Components of Network Interface Card:
Network Interface Card contains the following essential components -
1. Memory: Memory is one of the most important components of the NIC. It is used to store the data during communication.
2. Connectors : connectors are used to connect the cables to the Ethernet port.
3. Processor: Processor is used for converting the data message into a suitable form of communication.
4. Jumpers: Jumpers are the small device that is used to control the communication operations without the need of any software. It is also used to determine settings for the interrupt request line, I/O address, upper memory block, and type of transceiver.
5. Routers: To provide wireless connectivity, routers are used.
6. MAC address: MAC address is also referred to as a physical network address. It is a unique address that is present to the network interface card where ethernet packets are communicated with the computer.
Types of Network Interface Cards:
There are the following two types of NICs -
1. Ethernet NIC: Ethernet NIC was developed by Robert Metcalf in 1980. It is made by ethernet cables. This type of NIC is most widely used in the LAN, MAN, and WAN networks.
Example: TP-LINK TG-3468 Gigabit PCI Express Network Adapter.
2. Wireless Networks NIC : It is a wireless network that allows us to connect the devices without using the cables. These types of NICs are used to design a Wi-Fi connection.
Example: Intel 3160 Dual-Band Wireless Adapter
A list of advantages of NIC is given below -
1) As compared to the wireless network card, NIC provides a secure, faster, and more reliable connection.
2) NIC allows us to share bulk data among many users.
3) It helps us to connect peripheral devices using many ports of NIC.
4) Communication speed is high.
5) Network Interface cards are not expensive.
6) NICs are easy to troubleshoot.
7) Disadvantages of NIC
A list of disadvantages of NIC is given below -
1. NIC is inconvenient as compared to the wireless card.
2. For wired NIC, a hard-wired connection is required.
3. NIC needs a proper configuration to work efficiently.
4. NIC cards are not secure, so the data inside NIC is not safe.
Router
A Router connects one network to another network.It is responsible for the delivery of packets across different networks.The destination of the IP packet might be a web server in another country or an email server on the LAN. It works on network Layer.
The router is a physical or virtual internetworking device that is designed to receive, analyze, and forward data packets between computer networks. A router examines a destination IP address of a given data packet, and it uses the headers and forwarding tables to decide the best way to transfer the packets. There are some popular companies that develop routers; such are Cisco, 3Com, HP, Juniper, D-Link, Nortel, etc. Some important points of routers are given below:
1. A router is used in LAN (Local Area Network) and WAN (Wide Area Network) environments. For example, it is used in offices for connectivity, and you can also establish the connection between distant networks such as from Bhopal to
2. It shares information with other routers in networking.
3. It uses the routing protocol to transfer the data across a network.
4. Furthermore, it is more expensive than other networking devices like switches and hubs.
HUB
It is a multiport device that is used to connect multiple network hosts.When a host sends a data packets to a network hub,the hub copies the data packet to all of its ports connected to it.The hub is not so secure and safe.It works at physical layer.
which is used for connection of devices in a network. It works as a central connection for all the devices that are connected through a hub. The hub has numerous ports. If a packet reaches at one port, it is able to see by all the segments of the network due to a packet is copied to the other ports. A network hub has no routing tables or intelligence (unlike a network switch or router), which is used to send information and broadcast all network data across each and every connection.
Although most of the hubs can recognize network troubles or errors like collisions, broadcasting all information to the several ports can be a security risk and cause bottlenecks. The network hubs were popular in the past time as they were cheaper as compared to a switch or router. Nowadays, switches are much cheaper than a hub and provide a better solution for any network. Furthermore, a hub is no IP address, as it is a dumb device.
Switch
It is a networking device,which is more intelligent than a hub.It does filter and forwarding which is more intelligent way.It works on the basis of the MAC address.It uses a CAM(Content Address Memory) table contains the mac address of connected devices.It works at data link layer.
Switches have a smarter job than hubs in general. A switch improves the capacity of the network. The switch keeps limited information on routing nodes in the internal network and provides links to systems such as hubs or routers. Normally LAN beaches are linked by switches. Switches will usually read incoming packets ‘ hardware addresses to transfer them to their respective destinations. Switches improve the Network’s effectiveness over hubs or routers because of the flexibility of the digital circuit. Switches also improve network protection since network control makes digital circuits easier to investigate.
You can see a switch as a system that combines some of the best routers and hubs. A switch can operate on the interface Data Link or the OSI model’s network layer. A multi-layer switch can be worked in both layers, so both a switch and a router can work. A high-performance switch adopting the same routing procedures as routers is a multilayer switch. DDoS may attack switches; flood controls can be used to prevent malicious traffic from stopping the switch. The Switch port’s protection is crucial to make sure that all unused ports are deactivated, and DHCP, ARP, and MAC Address Filtering are used to ensure stable switches.
Bridge
Bridges link two or more hosts or network segments. Bridge processing and transfer of frames between the various bridge links are the key roles in the network architecture. For the transmission of images, you use Media Access Control (MAC) hardware. Bridges can transmit the data or block the crossing by looking at the devices’ MAC addresses connected to each line. It is also possible to connect two physical LANs with a wider theoretical LAN with bridges. Bridges only function on OSI layers Physical and Data Link. Bridges are used for dividing large networks into smaller sections through the placement between two segments of the physical network and data flow management between the two.
Bridges are in many respects like hubs, like linking LAN components to the same protocols. Yet bridges, known as frames, filter the incoming data packets to addresses before transmission. The bridge does not modify the format or content of the incoming data when it filters the data packets with the aid of a dynamic bridge table; the bridge filters and forwarded frames in the network. The initially empty bridge table preserves each LAN computer’s LAN address and each bridge interface’s addresses that link the LAN to the other LANs.
Gateway
The transportation and session layers of the OSI model usually work in gateways. There are many guidelines and specifications for different vendors on the transport layer and above; gateways manage these. The connection between networking technologies, such as OSI and Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocols, such as TCP / IP, is supported by the gateway. Gateways link, thus, two or more self-contained networks with their own algorithms, protocols, topology, domain name system and policy, and network administration. Gateways handle all routing functions and more. In fact, an added translation router is a gateway. A protocol converter is called the feature that translates between different network technologies.
Modem
Digital signals are transmitted through analog phone lines using modems (modulator demodulators). The modem converts digital signals into analog signals of various frequencies and transmits them to a modem at the receiver location. The receiving modem turns the other way and provides a digital output to a device, normally a computer, connected to a modem. In most cases, digital data is transmitted via the RS-232 standard interface to or from a serial line modem. Most cable operators use modems as final terminals to locate and remember their homes and personal clients, and many phone companies provide DSL services. All physical and data link layers are operating on modems.
Brouter
The bridging router is also the device that combines bridge and router features. It can be used on the data connection layer or the network layer. It can route packets across networks as a router, function as a bridge, and filter network traffic in the local area.
Network Medias
It refers to the communication channels and to interconnect nodes on a computer network.They’re broadly classified into guided and unguided mediums.Typical examples of network media include copper coaxial cable,copper twisted paid cables and optical fiber cables and used in wired networks and radio waves used in wireless data communication networks.
Cables
To connect two or more computers or networking devices in a network,cables are used.There are three types of network cables.
Coaxial cables: This cable contains a conductor,insulator,braiding and sheath.The sheath covers the braiding,the braiding covers the insulation,and the insulation covers the conductor.Example:Cables in dish TV.
Twisted paid cables : This cable is also known as Ethernet cable.This cable consists of color-coded pairs of insulated copper wires.Every two wires are twisted around each others to form pairs.Usually,there are four pairs.Each pair has one solid color and one stripped color wire.Solid colors are blue,green,brown and orange.In stripped color,the solid color is mixed with the white color. Based on how pairs are stripped in the plastic sheath,there are two types of twisted paid cables.
1. UTP(Unshielded Twisted Pair) : All pairs are wrapped in a single plastic sheath.
2. STP(Shielded Twisted Pair) : Each pair is wrapped with an metal shield,then all pairs are wrapped in a single outer plastic sheath.
Fibre optic cable : The cable consists of a core,cladding buffer,and jacket.The core is made from thin strands of glass or plastic that can carry data over a long distance.The core is wrapped in the cladding,the cladding is wrapped in the buffer,and the buffer is wrapped in the jacket.The core carried the data signals in the form of light.
Network Topology
The arrangement of a network that comprised nodes and connecting lives via sender and receiver is referred to as network topology.
Mainly ,there are 6 network topologies:
1. Bus
2. Star
3. Ring
4. Mesh
5. Tree
6. Hybrid
Bus Topology : It is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to a single cable.It transmits the data from one to another in a single domain.
Bus topology is a specific kind of network topology in which all of the various devices in the network are connected to a single cable or line. In general, the term refers to how various devices are set up in a network.
Bus topology carries transmitted data through the cable. because data reaches each node, the node checks the destination address (MAC/IP address) to work out if it matches their address. If the address does not match with the node, the node does nothing more. But if the addresses of nodes match to address contained within data then they process on knowledge. In the bus, communication between nodes is done through a foremost network cable.
Advantages of Bus Topology :
1) It is the easiest network topology for connecting peripherals or computers in a linear fashion.
2) It works very efficiently well when there is a small network.
3) The length of cable required is less than a star topology.
4) It is easy to connect or remove devices in this network without affecting any other device.
5) Very cost-effective as compared to other network topology i.e. mesh and star
6) It is easy to understand topology.
7) Easy to expand by joining the two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology :
1. Bus topology is not great for large networks.
2. Identification of problems becomes difficult if the whole network goes down.
3. Troubleshooting individual device issues is very hard.
4. Need terminators are required at both ends of the main cable.
5. Additional devices slow the network down.
6. If the main cable is damaged, the whole network fails or splits into two.
7. Packet loss is high.
8. This network topology is very slow as compared to other topologies.
Star Topology : In this,all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable.This hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node.
Star Topology A star may be a topology for a Local Area Network (LAN) during which all nodes are individually connected to a central connection point, sort of a hub or a switch. A star takes more cable than e.g. a bus, but the benefit is that if a cable fails, just one node is going to be brought down. Each device within the network is connected to a central device called a hub. If one device wants to send data to another device, it’s to first send the info to the hub then the hub transmits that data to the designated device. The number of links required to connect nodes in the star topology is N where N is the number of nodes.
Advantages of Star Topology
1) It is very reliable — if one cable or device fails then all the others will still work
2) It is high-performing as no data collisions can occur
3) Less expensive because each device only need one I/O port and wishes to be connected with hub with one link.
4) Easier to put in
5) Robust in nature
6) Easy fault detection because the link are often easily identified.
7) No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
8) Each device requires just one port i.e. to attach to the hub.
9) If N devices are connected to every other in star, then the amount of cables required to attach them is N. So, it’s easy to line up.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
1. Requires more cable than a linear bus .
2. If the connecting network device (network switch) fails, nodes attached are disabled and can’t participate in network communication.
3. More expensive than linear bus topology due to the value of the connecting devices (network switches)
4. If hub goes down everything goes down, none of the devices can work without hub.
5. Hub requires more resources and regular maintenance because it’s the central system of star .
6. Extra hardware is required (hubs or switches) which adds to cost
7. Performance is predicated on the one concentrator i.e. hub.
Ring Topology : In this ,it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring devices.
Ring Topology may be a network configuration where device connections create a circular data path. In this each device is connected to with its exactly two neighboring devices, like points on a circle which forms like a ring structure. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes to send data and to prevent data loss repeaters are used in this network. Together, devices during a ring topology are mentioned as a hoop network. In this packets travels from one device to another until they reach the desired destination. In this data travels in unidirectional forms means in only one direction but it can also do bidirectional by having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. It is used in LANs and WANs depending on the card of network in the computer.
Advantages of Ring topology :
1) In this data flows in one direction which reduces the chance of packet collisions.
2) In this topology additional workstations can be added after without impacting performance of the network.
3) Equal access to the resources.
4) There is no need of server to control the connectivity among the nodes in the topology.
5) It is cheap to install and expand.
6) Minimum collision.
7) Speed to transfer the data is very high in this type of topology.
8) Due to the presence of token passing the performance of ring topology becomes better than bus topology under heavy traffic.
9) Easy to manage.
10) Ring network is extremely orderly organized where every device has access to the token and therefore the opportunity to transmit.
Disadvantages of Ring topology :
1. Due to the Uni-directional Ring, a data packet (token) must have to pass through all the nodes.
2. If one workstation shuts down, it affects whole network or if a node goes down entire network goes down.
3. It is slower in performance as compared to the bus topology
4. It is Expensive.
5. Addition and removal of any node during a network is difficult and may cause issue in network activity.
6. Difficult to troubleshoot the ring.
7. In order for all the computer to communicate with each other, all computer must be turned on.
8. Total dependence in on one cable.
9. They were not Scalable.
Mesh Topology : In this ,every device is connected to another device via a particular channel.These channels are known as links.
In mesh, all the computers are interconnected to every other during a network. Each computer not only sends its own signals but also relays data from other computers. The nodes are connected to every other completely via a dedicated link during which information is travel from nodes to nodes and there are N(N-1)/2 links in mesh if there are N nodes. Every node features a point-to-point connection to the opposite node. The connections within the mesh are often wired or wireless.
There are two types of Mesh topologies –
Fully-connected Mesh Topology
Partially-connected Mesh Topology
1. Full Mesh Topology :
All the nodes within the network are connected with every other If there are n number of nodes during a network, each node will have an n-1 number of connections. A full mesh provides an excellent deal of redundancy, but because it is prohibitively expensive to implement, it’s usually reserved for network backbones.
Total number of links required for the mesh topology is [n(n-1)]/2.
2. Partial Mesh Topology :
The partial mesh is more practical as compared to the full mesh. In a partially connected mesh, all the nodes aren’t necessary to be connected with one another during a network. Peripheral networks are connected using partial mesh and work with a full-mesh backbone in tandem.
Advantages of Mesh Topology :
1) Failure during a single device won’t break the network.
2) There is no traffic problem as there is a dedicated point to point links for every computer.
3) Fault identification is straightforward.
4) This topology provides multiple paths to succeed in the destination and tons of redundancy.
5) It provides high privacy and security.
6) Data transmission is more consistent because failure doesn’t disrupt its processes.
7) Adding new devices won’t disrupt data transmissions.
8) This topology has robust features to beat any situation.
9) A mesh doesn’t have a centralized authority.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology :
1. It’s costly as compared to the opposite network topologies i.e. star, bus, point to point topology.
2. Installation is extremely difficult in the mesh.
3. Power requirement is higher as all the nodes will need to remain active all the time and share the load.
4. Complex process.
5. The cost to implement mesh is above other selections.
6. There is a high risk of redundant connections.
7. Each node requires a further utility cost to think about.
8. Maintenance needs are challenging with a mesh.
Tree Topology : It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub,thus it decreased the disatnce that is travelled by the signal to come to the devices.it allows the network to get isolated and also prioritze from different computers. In computer network a tree topology is also known as a star bus topology.It incorporates elements of both a bus and star topology.
Advantages of Tree Topology
1) It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub ,thus it decreases the distance that is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
2) It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
3) Detection of error: In a tree topology, error detection becomes more accessible. All the nodes in this topology are connected through the central hub. The hub can easily detect the node with error since all the information transmitted through the nodes passes through the hub. The node which has a mistake can be easily replaced by replacing the faulty node.
4) Sturdiness: In tree topology, if a single node gets defected, it will not affect the other nodes. The entire tree topology network is based on the main backbone cable. Hence, the failure of one node will not affect the other nodes, and the other nodes will continue to function regularly. The removal of any node does not affect the performance of the network.
5) Easy expansion: The expansion of tree topology is a straightforward method. It can be expanded even if there is no space. Since this topology follows a hierarchy pattern, many secondary nodes can be attached to it without any issue. As long as enough hubs and cables are available, the expansion won’t be a problem.
6) Device support: While adding new devices, one of the best considerable options is a tree topology. Due to its hybrid approach, various manufacturers support this network. It also allows the manufacturers to easily access the devices connected to the network for maintenance and other work.
7) Low cable requirement: Installation of a tree topology does not require any cables. There is the existence of a single cable that acts as the backbone of the network, and it runs joint for all the segments of the network. Every tree network is allocated with a point to point wiring. This point-to-point wiring in the network ensures high bandwidth and low latency.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
1. If the central hub get fails the entire system get failed
2. Cost is high because of cabling
3. Installing tree topology: The uses of tree topology are limited due to its difficult installation process. Tree topology includes the functions of both bus and star topology. Hence, the cabling requirement of a tree topology is massive. Due to this reason, the process of installing this topology becomes expensive and difficult to handle.
4. Security: The security of tree topology is extremely weak. In tree topology, all the computers are interconnected with each other. As a result, any computer within the network can access the data that passes through the network. Therefore, if a hacker somehow manages to take over a single workstation, they can quickly access all the data, and hence the whole network is compromised.
5. Reliability: The backbone cable of the tree topology is the main cable on which the entire network depends. If the backbone cable gets defected and fails, then the whole network will collapse. The point where the failure occurs also decides the level of loss. If the damage is restricted before a specific branch, all the segments related to that branch will face problems while functioning. On the other hand, the components which are not associated with it will continue to work usually.
6. Cost: The cable length of a tree topology is also an essential factor. While creating the point-to-point connection in tree topology, the cable length is limited to a certain point by default. This limitation later causes trouble since it makes it challenging to get wired. Regardless of this, there will be high wiring requirements if the network needs expansion, which will increase the total cost.
7. Maintenance: Maintenance and configuration of tree topology become difficult due to its large size. A lot of time is taken up for managing point-to-point connections, individual star networks, and identification of errors. This is amongst one of the major reasons why large organizations less prefer tree topology.
Hybrid Topology : It is the combination of all the various types of topologies.It is used when the nodes are free to take any form.It means these can be individuals such as Ring or star topology or can be combination of various topology.
A hybrid topology is a kind of network topology that is a combination of two or more network topologies, such as mesh topology, bus topology, and ring topology. Its usage and choice are dependent on its deployments and requirements like the performance of the desired network, and the number of computers, their location. The below figure is describing the structure of hybrid topology that contains more than one topology.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology:
1) This type of topology combines the benefits of different types of topologies in one topology.
2) Can be modified as per requirement.
3) It is extremely flexible.
4) It is very reliable.
5) It is easily scalable as Hybrid networks are built in a fashion which enables easy integration of new hardware components.
6) Error detecting and troubleshooting are easy.
7) Handles a large volume of traffic.
8) It is used to create large networks.
9) The speed of the topology becomes fast when two topologies are put together.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology :
1. It is a type of network expensive.
2. The design of a hybrid network is very complex.
3. There is a change in the hardware to connect one topology with another topology.
4. Usually, hybrid architectures are larger in scale so they require a lot of cables in the installation process.
5. Hubs which are used to connect two distinct networks are very costly. And hubs are different from usual hubs as they need to be intelligent enough to work with different architectures.
6. Installation is a difficult process.
What is IP?
IP Address stands for internet protocol Address. Computer use IP address to communicate with each other both over the internet as well as on the other networks. There are two versions of IP that currently coexist in the global internet : IPV4 & IPV6
IPV4
Internet Protocol Version 4
It defines an IP address as a 32-bit number.
The original version of the internet protocol that was first deployed in 1983 in the ARPANET(Advanced Research Projects Agency Network),the predecessor of the internet is IPV4.
IP address are written & displayed in human readable notations.
IPV4 Address Types:
They’re categorized into three basic types- unicast address,multicast address,broadcast address.
- Unicast Address : One-to-One trasmission
It is an address of a single interface. The IP addresses of this type are used for one-to-one communication. Unicast IP addresses are used to direct packets to a specific host. Here is an example:
In the picture above you can see that the host wants to communicate with the server. It uses the IP address of the server (192.168.0.150) to do so.
2. Multicast address : One/more sender and one/more recipient participate in data transfer traffic.
It is used for one-to-many communication. Multicast messages are sent to IP multicast group addresses. Routers forward copies of the packet out to every interface that has hosts subscribed to that group address. Only the hosts that need to receive the message will process the packets. All other hosts on the LAN will discard them. Here is an example:
R1 has sent a multicast packet destined for 224.0.0.9. This is an RIPv2 packet, and only routers on the network should read it. R2 will receive the packet and read it. All other hosts on the LAN will discard the packet.
3. Broadcast Address : Broadcasting transfer(one-to-all)
broadcast IP addresses — used to send data to all possible destinations in the broadcast domain (the one-to-everybody communication). The broadcast address for a network has all host bits on. For example, for the network 192.168.30.0 255.255.255.0 the broadcast address would be 192.168.30.255. Also, the IP address of all 1’s (255.255.255.255) can be used for local broadcast. Here’s an example:
R1 has sent a broadcast packet to the broadcast IP address 192.168.30.255. All hosts in the same broadcast domain will receive and process the packet.
IPV6
The growth of the internet and the depletion of available IPV4 address,a new version of IP,using 128 bits for IP,was standardized in 1998. The IPV6 deployment has been ongoing since the mid 2000’s.IPV6 address are represented as eight groups of four hexadecimal digits each separated by colons.
IPV6 was developed by Internet Engineering Task Force(IETF)
Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) is a network layer protocol that allows communication and data transfers to take place over the network. IPv6 came into existence in 1998 with the sole purpose of taking over and replace the IPv4 protocol one day.
IPv4 protocol, the previous standard, consists of four number strings — each containing three digits separated by dots. A standard IPv4 address is 32-bit and looks something like 255.255.255.255, which allows 4.2 billion unique IP addresses
With wireless and network-attached devices increasing rapidly by the day, it was expected that by 2010, the internet would have exhausted all unique IPv4 addresses. To come up with a new standard of network layer protocol that allows more unique IP addresses to be created, IPv6 was standardized.
IPv6 protocol, which is 128-bits, consists of eight numbered strings, each containing four characters (alphanumeric), separated by a colon. This gives us an unbelievable amount of unique IP addresses; 340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456 to be precise. It also assures that we will not run out of unique IP addresses to assign to new devices anytime soon.
What are the Types of IPv6 Address?
Now that we know about what is IPv6 addresses let’s take a look at their different types.
1) Unicast addresses : It identifies a unique node on a network and usually refers to a single sender or a single receiver.
2) Multicast addresses : It represents a group of IP devices and can only be used as the destination of a datagram.
3) Anycast addresses : It is assigned to a set of interfaces that typically belong to different nodes
Advantages of IPv6
1. Reliability
2. Faster Speeds
3. Stringer Security
4. Routing efficiency
5. Global Reachability
6. Enhanced Encryption
7. Higher Website Conversion
8. Improved User Experience
9. Better Customer Insights
Disadvantages of IPv6
1) Conversion:IPv4 is still very popular. People and companies are taking their time to make the switch to IPv6.
2) Communication:IPv4 and IPv6 machines cannot communicate directly with each other. They need in-between equipment to make that possible.Transition:For an individual to switch from IPv4 to IPv6, it requires immense effort and countless hours.
3) Readability:IPv6 subnetting is complicated to comprehend while remembering your IPv6 address is nearly impossible, unlike IPv4.
What is an IP address?
An IP address is a number which identifies a device within a computer network. It is part of the internet protocol standard and is being used to transfer data between a sender and a receiver.
What is an IPv4 address?
IPv4 stands for Internet Protocol Version 4, which is a standard who enables a total range of 4.2 billion addresses. It consists of four segments which are divided by dots.
Example
197.228.0.32
What is the difference between IPv4 and IPv6?
IPv6 stands for IP Version 6. This newer implementation enables a wider scope for issued addresses. In total there can be 2¹²⁸ addresses. These are generally displayed in a hexadecimal format. Since the amount of addresses within the IPv4 format is limited and more and more devices worldwide are being connected to the internet and new format had to be introduced. IPv6 enables a wider range of addresses and ensures, that new devices can be connected to the world wide web.
Example
2001:db8::211:22ff:fe33:4455
IP Classes
IP addresses are divided into five classes that are identified by the value of the first octet (the first decimal number). The system of IP address classes was developed for the purpose of Internet IP addresses assignment. The classes created were based on the network size. For example, for the small number of networks with a very large number of hosts, the Class A was created. The Class C was created for the numerous networks with the small number of hosts.
The IP address classes are:
Class A, 0–127 — for example, 10.50.13.40. For large networks with many devices.
Class B, 128–191 — for example, 130.5.4.77. For medium-sized networks.
Class C, 192–223 — for example, 192.168.5.10. For small networks with the small number of hosts.
Class D, 224–239 — for example, 224.0.0.5. For multicast addresses.
Class E, 240–255 — for example, 241.0.0.1. Experimental/researcher.
Reserved addresses (used for special purposes):
0.0.0.0/8 — used to communicate with the network the device is on.
127.0.0.0/8 — loopback addresses.
169.254.0.0/16 — link-local addresses (APIPA).
An IP address consists of 32 bits. These bits are divided into two parts:
network bits — identify a particular network.
host bits — identify a host on the network.
What is a Loopback Address?
A loopback address is a distinct reserved IP address range that starts from 127.0.0.0 ends at 127.255.255.255 though 127.255.255.255 is the broadcast address for 127.0.0.0/8. The loopback addresses are built into the IP domain system, enabling devices to transmit and receive the data packets. The loopback address 127.0.0.1 is generally known as localhost.
TCP/IP protocol manages all the loopback addresses in the operating system. It mocks the TCP/IP server or TCP/IP client on the same system. These loopback addresses are always accessible so that the user can use them anytime for troubleshooting TCP/IP.
Whenever a protocol or program sends any data from a computer with any loopback IP address, that traffic is processed by a TCP/IP protocol stack within itself, i.e., without transmitting it to the network. That is, if a user is pinging a loopback address, they’ll get the reply from the same TCP/IP stack running on their computer. So, all the data transmitted to any of the loopback addresses as the destination address will not pop up on the network.
127.0.0.1 is the most commonly used loopback address; generally, 127.0.0.1 and localhost are functionally similar, i.e., the loopback address 127.0.0.1 and the hostname localhost; are internally mapped. Though, other loopback addresses are also accessible and can be used.
IPv4 and IPv6 Loopback Addresses:
The IPv4 loopback address is 127.0.0.0/8 and the most commonly used loopback address is 127.0.0.1.
The IPv6 loopback address is ::1
Advantages of loopback address:
It is an efficient method to find a device on the network.
It can be configured as the router ID for protocols such as BGP and OSPF.
It is used as a source and destination address for testing network connectivity.
It can also be used for testing IP software.
Disadvantages:
Just like physical interfaces, it needs a unique address.
IP Types
There are mainly four types of IP addresses:
Public,Private,Static,Dynamic.
Among them, public and private addresses are based on their location of the network private, which should be used inside a network while the public IP is used outside of a network.
Let us see all these types of IP address in detail.
Public IP Addresses
A public IP address is an address where one primary address is associated with your whole network. In this type of IP address, each of the connected devices has the same IP address.
This type of public IP address is provided to your router by your ISP.
Private IP Addresses
A private IP address is a unique IP number assigned to every device that connects to your home internet network, which includes devices like computers, tablets, smartphones, which is used in your household.
It also likely includes all types of Bluetooth devices you use, like printers or printers, smart devices like TV, etc. With a rising industry of internet of things (IoT) products, the number of private IP addresses you are likely to have in your own home is growing.
Dynamic IP address
Dynamic IP addresses always keep changing. It is temporary and are allocated to a device every time it connects to the web. Dynamic IPs can trace their origin to a collection of IP addresses that are shared across many computers.
Dynamic IP addresses are another important type of internet protocol addresses. It is active for a specific amount of time; after that, it will expire.
Static IP Addresses
A static IP address is an IP address that cannot be changed. In contrast, a dynamic IP address will be assigned by a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server, which is subject to change. Static IP address never changes, but it can be altered as part of routine network administration.
Static IP addresses are consistent, which is assigned once, that stays the same over the years. This type of IP also helps you procure a lot of information about a device.
Types of Website IP Addresses
Two types of website IP Addresses are 1) Share IP Address 2) Dedicated IP Address
Shared IP Addresses:
Shared IP address is used by small business websites that do not yet get many visitors or have many files or pages on their site. The IP address is not unique and it is shared with other websites.
Dedicated IP Addresses:
Dedicated IP address is assigned uniquely to each website. Dedicated IP addresses helps you avoid any potential backlists because of bad behavior from others on your server. The dedicated IP address also gives you the option of pulling up your website using the IP address alone, instead of your domain name. It also helps you to access your website when you are waiting on a domain transfer.
